Bird Nutrition
Shared by: Jolly Pe - CAS Member
Reference: The Parrot Breeder's Answer Book
The Parrot Diet
What then is the proper diet for a parrot? In truth, that question has no quick and easy answer. Many factors such as age, species, level of activity, and general health will dictate the proper diet for that particular bird, at that particular point in its /life. Although there is such a thing as a general, all-purpose parrot diet, the aviculturist must adjust the nutritional levels as necessary to meet the needs of each individual. To do so, you'll need to understand some of the basics of nutrition.
The Essential Elements
Food is composed of four basic elements: proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and water. Proteins, carbohydrates, and fats supply energy. They also provide vitamins, minerals, and other trace elements necessary for life. Water cools the body, removes waste, and transports nutrients to the cells. The proper balance and quality of these elements will decide the difference between health and illness for your birds.
Proteins
Proteins, which are often referred to as the building blocks of life, are found throughout almost every part of the body, including bone, flesh, blood, organs, feathers, and beak. Proteins are also necessary for most of the body's chemical processes, such as healing and growth. All proteins are compounds made up from substances called amino acids. There are approximately 22 different amino acids that havebeen identified, and how they are combined determines the type of protein. Although some arnino acids can be manufactured by the body, others must be derived from food. There are 10 that require a food source, and these are called essential. The essential amino acids are arginine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine. A protein source that contains all 10 of these essentials is referred to as a complete protein and includes meat, milk, and eggs.
Incomplete protein sources contain some or most of the essentials but not all. Creating a complete protein meal is possible by combining various foods with complementary amino acid levels. For example, most grains are deficient in lysine but contain sufficient methionine. Legumes (beans and peanuts) have enough lysine but lack methionine. By combining a grain with a legume, you will create a complete protein source. Two classic examples of this pairing are bean and rice dishes and the good old peanut butter sandwich.
Even complete proteins, however, will have little benefit if they are not bioavailable. This means that the body must be able to digest, absorb, and utilize the food properly. A high-protein diet that the bird cannot digest completely might provide less overall protein than a low-protein food that the bird digests and absorbs well. Manufacturers of well-formulated parrot diets usually use a combination of protein sources that are digestible and easily assimilated in the parrot gastrointestinal tract. This is one reason that birds on a high-quality formulated diet usually need to eat less than their counterparts who are fed a comparatively lower-quality (and less digestible) seed and grain mix.
lf you assume that the protein content of a diet is complete and bioavailable, adult parrots do best on a maintenance level of about 12 to 16 percent protein, while growing chicks require between 19 to 22 percent. Adults that are sick, stressed, molting, or actively breeding might benefit from increased protein levels of up to 20 percent for a brief period. However, keeping them on high- protein diets for the long term is not advisable. Excess dietary protein is difficult to metabolize and can seriously exacerbate underlying kidney and liver problems.
Carbohydrates
Whereas proteins can be thought of as the structure of a body, carbohydrates are the fuel that drives it. Carbohydrates supply energy and heat, and they support the metabolic processes necessary tor life. Carbohydrates are derived mainly from plants. They are composed of starches (digestible polysaccharides), sugars (monosaccharides and disaccharides), and fiber, which is indigestible or resistant carbohydrate.
Most carbohydrates are converted by the body into glucose, a simple sugar that is carried through the bloodstream to supply cells with energy. Excess glucose goes to the liver. There it is turned into glycogen and stored in the liver and muscles as a ready fuel source. Once the liver and muscles are fully stocked, any remaining glucose is turned into fat for long-term storage. Because virtually all diets contain carbohydrates, there is really no such thing as a carbohydrate deficiency. Short-term deprivation, such as in a bird that has been fasted, can cause low blood sugar levels, which is known as hypoglycemia. This condition is usually transient, however, and will likely resolve as soon as the bird is fed. Excess carbohydrates lead to weight gain and obesity, which can contribute to heart and lung problems, diabetes, liver and kidney disease, and skeletal problems. Because carbohydrates primarily supply energy, there is no average requirement. The amount your birds need will depend on their age, species, level of activity, and the temperature at which they are maintained. lf you notice signs of obesity, cut back on the amount of food or increase the activity level by adding toys or increasing the cage size. Obesity is much less common in birds being fed a high-quality formulated diet than it is in birds on a seed-based regime.
Fats
While dietary fats often have a negative connotation these days, a certain amount of fats is vital to sustain life. Fats (also correctly called lipids) are a concentrated source of stored energy, aid in the absorption of some vitamins, act as precursors for several hormonelike substances, serve as insulation for the body, and give foods a pleasant "mouth-feel." Lipids are composed primarily of three types of fatty acids: saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated. Saturated fats come mostly from animal sources, such as meat and dairy products, although coconut and palm oils are also highly saturated. This fat is usually solid at room temperature. A dietary excess of this type of fat is associated with cardiovascular and other degenerative diseases.
Unsaturated fats come primarily from plants and fish. These should make up a majority of the fat in your bird's diet. These are usually liquid at room temperature. Polyunsaturated fats include sunflower, saf- flower, sesame, corn, and soy oils. Monounsaturated fats include olive, peanut, avocado, and canola (rape-seed) oils. In moderation, these healthy lipids supply the necessary essential fatty acids and help to make the diet palatable.
In general, fat levels of 4 to 7 percent are suitable for adult parrot maintenance and 8 to 15 percent for growing chicks, depending on the species. Adult Amazons and other sedentary species might require lower fat levels, perhaps 3 percent. On the other hand, adult macaws often do better on a higher fat intake, usually between 8 to 12 percent. The same is true for babies. Amazon chicks should be fed a lower-fat, hand-feeding formula with 8 to 9 percent fat, whereas macaw chicks need 12 to 15 percent fat to grow properly without stunting. Please note that these levels are not absolutes. Many in the world of avian nutrition still disagree about what constitutes a proper diet for parrots. However, the ranges I've given encompass most of the formulated diets on the market and express the majority opinion.
Water
Although it is not often thought of as a nutrient, water is essential for all bodily functions. Water cools the body, transports nutrients to cells, removes waste products, and serves as a medium for chemical reactions. A deficiency of water is called dehydration and will lead to death if not corrected promptly. The amount of water that a bird needs will vary according to species, type of diet, and many other factors. Budgies and zebra finches seem to metabolize water from food sources and drink comparatively little. Most other species depend on a regular source of fresh water, however, and will die if deprived of it for more than a day or two. Keep in mind that birds fed a dry-seed or pelleted diet will require more water than those fed a diet high in juicy fruits and vegetables. No matter what the diet or what species you are dealing with, be certain that a supply of clean, fresh water is available at all times.
Vitamins
Vitamins are organic substances that regulate cellular functions. Although most vitamins are derived from food, certain ones can be manufactured in the body. Vitamins are divided into two groups, fat soluble and water soluble. Fat-soluble vitamins, which include A, D, E, and K, are stored in the body, primarily in the liver and body fats. Water-soluble vitamins, which include all B-complex vitamins and C, remain in body tissues for a relatively short time, so they must be replenished on a constant basis. Because fat-soluble vitamins are stored, building up toxic amounts is possible if these are oversupplemented. The greatest danger lies with A and D3 in birds, whereas E and K are less likely to cause problems. Water-soluble vitamins are rarely toxic, except in extreme cases of overdose. Never-theless, do not add supplemental vitamins if your birds are on a good- quality formulated diet, which should supply all the nutrients they need. If they are not yet eating a proper diet, then add a vitamin supplement. However, follow the label directions, and do not overdose.
Minerals
Minerals are inorganic substances contained in the earth's crust. Small amounts of these substances are taken up by plants and animals and become part of the food chain. Minerals play a critical role in the body and are essential for life. A few, like calcium and phosphorus, are required in significant amounts and are sometimes referred to as macrominerals. Others are needed in only very minute amounts and are known as micro-minerals or trace minerals. Roughly 12 minerals have been identified as essential for a healthy avian diet, and recommended dietary minimums have been set. Several other minerals, however, are less clearly understood but appear to be important nonetheless.
Putting It All Together
You might feel overwhelmed at the prospect of planning a suitable diet. Not only must all the nutrients be available, but they must also be available in correct ratios so that they do not create imbalances in the others. Because the birds cannot fly around and choose from an unlimited supply of food, they depend on what you put into the dish. So what do you put into the dish?
Seed Diets
By now you have probably come to realize that a seed-only diet is insufficient and downright neglectful. Adding a few fruits and vegetables is an improvement but will still not cover all the nutritional bases, especially for breeding birds and their fast-growing offspring. For example, seeds, fruits, and many vegetables are notoriously low in calcium, so a bird on such a diet is almost guaranteed a calcium deficiency (hypocalcemia) unless supplemental calcium is added. To make matters worse, fatty acids, phytates, and oxalates present in seeds, grains, and some vegetables bind with calcium and further inhibit its absorption. Calcium also works synergistically with phosphorus. The two must be available in proper ratios for optimal function. ln parrots, that ratio is approximately 2:1 (two parts calcium per one paft phosphorus) for maintenance and perhaps slightly higher during active egg laying. Many of the commonly fed items in a bird's diet are high in phosphorus and low or absent in calcium, including sun- flower seeds, safflower seeds, peanuts, corn, apples, and grapes. Sunflower seeds, for example, have approximately seven parts phosphorus to one part calcium, and safflower seeds and peanuts are not much better. I frequently run into old-time breeders who insist that they've used a seed-based diet for years and years and their birds are doing just fine, thank you. Of course, they had that hen that died from egg binding, and the babies with splayed legs, and the 1S-year-old Amazon with arthritis and liver troubles, and the cockatoo that died from a heart attack, and so on. These people don't seem to understand that these are largely nutritional diseases. Most medium-to-large parrots should live well into their forties or fifties or beyond without any significant degenerative diseases. A seed-based diet usually will not kill a parrot quickly, but you can be certain that this diet will kill it slowly and insidiously. Besides the above-mentioned problem with calcium and phosphorus, seed diets are also deficient in vitamins A, D3, E, K, several of the B-complex vitamins, certain amino acids, and several trace elements. They are extremely high in fat and can negatively affect the absorption of some nutrients. By adding a carefully chosen mix of fruits, vegetables, grains, dairy products, and vitamin and mineral supplements, you might be able to offer your birds a fair diet, provided, of course, that they eat everything in the mix completely. In reality, birds will choose their favourite items, and the diet becomes imbalanced and inadequate.
Formulated (Pelleted) Diets
A simple answer exists-to offer your birds a formulated diet. These diets were developed after years of research about avian nutrition. Formulated parrot diets come in two forms, pelleted and extruded, although most people in the avian community use the term pellets to refer to both types. ln general, true pellets consist of a mixture of coarsely ground grains and other food products, supplemented with vitamins and minerals, and pressed into hard, cylindrical pieces. These diets tend to be tan or light brown in color and have a natural grain aroma. Extruded diets begin with much the same ingredients, which are then finely ground, cooked to enhance digestibility, and forced through a die and shaped in a process called extrusion. Extruded brands often contain flavorings and colorings. They are available in a wide variety of shapes, colors, and sizes. For the sake of simplicity, the term pellets will be used to refer to both types of formulated foods even though extruded diets are more common these days. Both of these diets are based on the same concept as dry dog and cat foods, which is to provide complete and balanced nutrition in each bite.
Detractors offer three main arguments against feeding pellets. First, they claim that no such thing as a complete diet exists since no one yet fully understands parrot nutrition. Although this is true, the same argument can be applied toward any diet. Your birds will certainly have a much better chance at total nutrition with a formulated diet than they will with the "throw-it-in-the-bowl- and-see-what-they-like" school of nutrition. Over the years, pellet manufacturers have tweaked and fiddled with the diets constantly as research suggests methods for improvement.
The second argument waged against pellets is that they are unnatural. Actually, most of the ingredients found in pellets are natural food items for parrots, albeit in a processed form. Today's common seed mixes, on the other hand, tend to use a number of seeds and grains that are not normally found in the range countries of most parrots. More importantly, people need to get over the romanticized belief that they should replicate the natural diet of birds in the wild. Most parrots in the wild are opportunistic feeders and will consume just about anything to meet their caloric needs, including insects, lizards, and carrion. Wild parrots likely do not reach their maximum possible life span due, in part, to the difficulty of obtaining sufficient and varied nutrients. Captive diets can and should be an improvement over free-ranging diets, not a duplication of them.
The final argument against pellets is that they're boring and fail to offer taste and tactile stimulation to the bird. This smacks of anthropomorphism. (Because pellets look boring to people, people assume they are boring to birds.) This argument has several problems. First of all, parrots are creatures of habit and will often choose to eat one food to the near exclusion of others. Therefore, lack of choice does not necessarily imply boredom. Secondly, parrots do not have the same sense of taste that humans possess, so gauging taste preferences is very difficult. Although birds might show strong preferences for one food over another, these preferences could be due to familiarity, taste, color, shape, size, or many other factors.
For example, I have a wild-caught Moluccan cockatoo that came to me on an exclusive diet of black-striped sunflower seeds. Because that was all he would eat, that became the only food item that his previous owners offered him. He was in poor health and terrible feathering, yet he stubbornly refused any other foods. After months of experimenting with different formulated diets, I finally found one he would accept. Now, 15 years later, Mikey is healthy and beautiful. He's still food obsessed, but now he's obsessed with pellets and will not touch seeds. He has expanded his palate to include many different brands of pellets but shows a definite preference for formulated diets over any fresh foods.
Maintenance Diets
Although most avian researchers, veterinarians, and nutritionists seem to concur that a formulated diet is essential for long life and optimal health, it need not be the only food your birds eat. Between 20 to 30 percent of the diet can be made up of fresh fruits, vegetables, seeds, nuts, grains, and people food. Keep in mind, however, that this means that roughly 70 to 80 percent of the bird's intake must be the formulated diet. Some well-meaning people claim that they are feeding a pelleted diet. However, what they actually do is fill a crock in the parrot's cage with pellets, then spend the rest of the day stuffing the bird with assorted treats while the pellets sit uneaten. I usually feed an assortment of pellets free choice (available at all times) and offer small amounts of fruits, vegetables, or other treats as a snack late in the morning. You can adapt this basic diet to meet the special needs of any species you keep. Because macaws require relatively high levels of fat, I offer my macaws a small dish of mixed in-shell nuts every day along with their other treats. A few species (Eclectus, hanging parrots, and fig parrots, for example) seem to do best on a diet that's roughly 60 percent pellets and 40 percent high-vitamin fruits and vegetables. Lories and lorikeets need an even higher percentage of fruits. How- ever, they still do best with a formulated lory powder as a base diet to provide the proteins, fats, and vitamins they require. For most parrot species, researchers recommend protein levels between 12 to 16 percent and fat levels between 4 to 7 percent for a maintenance diet.
Breeding Diets
You should consider several factors when changing a bird's diet during breeding season. A good
breeding diet should
- Act as a psychological stimulus to induce pairs to nest
- Increase the hen's level of nutrition to provide the extra nutrients required for egg production and embryonic
survival
- Provide a healthy growth diet for parent-fed chicks
Although pairs might produce successfully on standard maintenance tare, it will often be at the female's expense as she depletes her body stores to create eggs. On the other hand, feeding a breeding diet year-round is just as dangerous, because the higher levels of fats and proteins will likely cause obesity and a host of other medical problems in nonproducing birds. Ironically, one of the major problems associated with the overuse of breeding diets is infertility in males, due primarily to obesity.
Many aviculturists have had success in inducing breeding activity by sharply increasing the amount of soft food (fruits and vegetables) offered at the beginning of the season. Parrot species that are traditionally spring breeders often respond to seasonal cues, such as increased day length, higher humidity and barometric pressure, and an increase in the supply of fresh food. This tactic is somewhat less effective with species like African greys, which tend to breed during the dry season in the wild and are often winter breeders in captivity. The other problem with this method arises when the fruit and vegetable portion of the diet exceeds 30 percent or so of the food intake. ln this case, it becomes counterproductive since the hen is not likely consuming enough fats and proteins to sustain her during egg production. The problem can be tackled in a few ways. To begin with, you should switch to a breeding pellet as the season approaches. These are usually between 18 lo 22 percent protein and 7 lo 10 percent fat. They will contain higher levels of calcium and other nutrients to support reproduction and growth. lf you want to increase the soft-food portion of the diet beyond 30 percent, you can incorporate the pellets into the soft food. During breeding season, I make up a birdie casserole that includes cooked whole-wheat pasta, brown rice, beans, chopped sweet potatoes, chopped kale or spinach, wheat germ, crumbled breeding pellets, and anything else I feel like tossing in. The birds love it, and it allows me to increase the amount of soft food without reducing their overall pellet intake. They get a dish of this mixture each morning in addition to the dry breeding pellets. When feeding any soft foods, however, always remove the uneaten portion after three or four hours since these are an incredible growth medium for bacteria and fungi. The breeding diet described above will provide a solid foundation to carry the parents through breeding, egg laying, and chick rearing. Be sure you do not offer too many individual fruits and vegetables to the parents while they're feeding chicks, or they might stuff the chicks with relatively low-nutrient foods instead of the highly nutritional pellets. I once gave my macaws an ear of corn a few days after a baby hatched. When I peeked into the nest box later, I saw that the chick's crop was completely packed full with nothing but kernels of corn. Although a few feedings like this won't hurt a healthy baby, selective food choices of this sort will not provide the range of nutrients required for growth. lf you make sure that the parents are eating mostly pellets and other highly nutritious foods, you'll be reasonably certain that the chicks are receiving proper nutrition. As always, provide plenty of clean, fresh water. You'll find that the parents require a greatly increased water and food intake while feeding babies, so keep those dishes full!
Post Breeding
Once breeding season is over, the time has come to make the transition back to a maintenance diet. Continue to feed breeder pellets for a week or two after removing the chicks to allow the parents to build up their nutritional reserves. Then make the switch back to maintenance formulas. Start to dry out the diet slightly by reducing the amount of soft food. For pairs without a clearly defined breeding season, you can simply cycle the diet from maintenance to breeding and back again once or twice a year, adjusting as necessary when they show signs of reproductive activity.
Food Storage and Safety
No matter what you are feeding, you must be sure that the food is fresh, is unspoiled, and contains viable nutrients. Most pelleted diets have an expiration date, or a date of manufacture, stamped right onto the bag. A few companies code these dates, so ask your supplier or call the manufacturer if you are uncertain. In general, formulated diets that contain preservatives (natural or artificial) are considered fresh for about a year after manufacture, assuming they're stored under cool, dry conditions. Extreme heat and humidity will shorten the shelf life, but refrigeration or freezing will extend it.
Preservative-free brands have a shorter shelf life and should probably be refrigerated after opening. Seed mixes are not normally dated, so gauging the freshness is difficult. Most seed crops are harvested just once or maybe twice a year and kept in storage. lf you purchase seed mixes, buy only from a reputable manufacturer and buy only from suppliers who have a rapid turnover of product. Otherwise, You might be getting food that has been sitting in storage for a year or more. Some books recommend sprouting a few seeds to test for freshness, but many of the mixes are treatedand processed in ways that will hamper germination, even if the seeds are relatively fresh.
Poison Alert
Always store seeds and grains in cool, dry, airtight containers. Exposure to heat and air will cause the oils to turn rancid and encourage the growth of molds and fungi. Most of these are invisible, but
they form dangerous compounds known as mycotoxins. You cannot normally see, smell, or taste mycotoxins, but they are deadly Poisons. Depending on the type and the amount present, effects range from low-level chronic damage to the liver, kidneys, and immune system to sudden toxicity and death over just a few days. Aflatoxin, a mycotoxin common to peanuts and corn, is a Potent cancer-causing agent that attacks the kidneys and liver. The USDA inspects peanuts destined for human consumption to ensure aflatoxin levels fall below federal limits, but improper storage at a later date might cause fungal growth. I feed only human-grade peanuts to my birds, and I limit them to just a few each week. The important points to remember here are that you should buy only the freshest food Possible, store it properly, and immediately discard any food that looks moldy or discolored or that smells rancid or musty. Keep in mind that replacing a bag of questionable food is much cheaper than replacing beloved and valuable Parrot that dies from mycotoxin exposure.
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What then is the proper diet for a parrot? In truth, that question has no quick and easy answer. Many factors such as age, species, level of activity, and general health will dictate the proper diet for that particular bird, at that particular point in its /life. Although there is such a thing as a general, all-purpose parrot diet, the aviculturist must adjust the nutritional levels as necessary to meet the needs of each individual. To do so, you'll need to understand some of the basics of nutrition.
The Essential Elements
Food is composed of four basic elements: proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and water. Proteins, carbohydrates, and fats supply energy. They also provide vitamins, minerals, and other trace elements necessary for life. Water cools the body, removes waste, and transports nutrients to the cells. The proper balance and quality of these elements will decide the difference between health and illness for your birds.
Proteins
Proteins, which are often referred to as the building blocks of life, are found throughout almost every part of the body, including bone, flesh, blood, organs, feathers, and beak. Proteins are also necessary for most of the body's chemical processes, such as healing and growth. All proteins are compounds made up from substances called amino acids. There are approximately 22 different amino acids that havebeen identified, and how they are combined determines the type of protein. Although some arnino acids can be manufactured by the body, others must be derived from food. There are 10 that require a food source, and these are called essential. The essential amino acids are arginine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine. A protein source that contains all 10 of these essentials is referred to as a complete protein and includes meat, milk, and eggs.
Incomplete protein sources contain some or most of the essentials but not all. Creating a complete protein meal is possible by combining various foods with complementary amino acid levels. For example, most grains are deficient in lysine but contain sufficient methionine. Legumes (beans and peanuts) have enough lysine but lack methionine. By combining a grain with a legume, you will create a complete protein source. Two classic examples of this pairing are bean and rice dishes and the good old peanut butter sandwich.
Even complete proteins, however, will have little benefit if they are not bioavailable. This means that the body must be able to digest, absorb, and utilize the food properly. A high-protein diet that the bird cannot digest completely might provide less overall protein than a low-protein food that the bird digests and absorbs well. Manufacturers of well-formulated parrot diets usually use a combination of protein sources that are digestible and easily assimilated in the parrot gastrointestinal tract. This is one reason that birds on a high-quality formulated diet usually need to eat less than their counterparts who are fed a comparatively lower-quality (and less digestible) seed and grain mix.
lf you assume that the protein content of a diet is complete and bioavailable, adult parrots do best on a maintenance level of about 12 to 16 percent protein, while growing chicks require between 19 to 22 percent. Adults that are sick, stressed, molting, or actively breeding might benefit from increased protein levels of up to 20 percent for a brief period. However, keeping them on high- protein diets for the long term is not advisable. Excess dietary protein is difficult to metabolize and can seriously exacerbate underlying kidney and liver problems.
Carbohydrates
Whereas proteins can be thought of as the structure of a body, carbohydrates are the fuel that drives it. Carbohydrates supply energy and heat, and they support the metabolic processes necessary tor life. Carbohydrates are derived mainly from plants. They are composed of starches (digestible polysaccharides), sugars (monosaccharides and disaccharides), and fiber, which is indigestible or resistant carbohydrate.
Most carbohydrates are converted by the body into glucose, a simple sugar that is carried through the bloodstream to supply cells with energy. Excess glucose goes to the liver. There it is turned into glycogen and stored in the liver and muscles as a ready fuel source. Once the liver and muscles are fully stocked, any remaining glucose is turned into fat for long-term storage. Because virtually all diets contain carbohydrates, there is really no such thing as a carbohydrate deficiency. Short-term deprivation, such as in a bird that has been fasted, can cause low blood sugar levels, which is known as hypoglycemia. This condition is usually transient, however, and will likely resolve as soon as the bird is fed. Excess carbohydrates lead to weight gain and obesity, which can contribute to heart and lung problems, diabetes, liver and kidney disease, and skeletal problems. Because carbohydrates primarily supply energy, there is no average requirement. The amount your birds need will depend on their age, species, level of activity, and the temperature at which they are maintained. lf you notice signs of obesity, cut back on the amount of food or increase the activity level by adding toys or increasing the cage size. Obesity is much less common in birds being fed a high-quality formulated diet than it is in birds on a seed-based regime.
Fats
While dietary fats often have a negative connotation these days, a certain amount of fats is vital to sustain life. Fats (also correctly called lipids) are a concentrated source of stored energy, aid in the absorption of some vitamins, act as precursors for several hormonelike substances, serve as insulation for the body, and give foods a pleasant "mouth-feel." Lipids are composed primarily of three types of fatty acids: saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated. Saturated fats come mostly from animal sources, such as meat and dairy products, although coconut and palm oils are also highly saturated. This fat is usually solid at room temperature. A dietary excess of this type of fat is associated with cardiovascular and other degenerative diseases.
Unsaturated fats come primarily from plants and fish. These should make up a majority of the fat in your bird's diet. These are usually liquid at room temperature. Polyunsaturated fats include sunflower, saf- flower, sesame, corn, and soy oils. Monounsaturated fats include olive, peanut, avocado, and canola (rape-seed) oils. In moderation, these healthy lipids supply the necessary essential fatty acids and help to make the diet palatable.
In general, fat levels of 4 to 7 percent are suitable for adult parrot maintenance and 8 to 15 percent for growing chicks, depending on the species. Adult Amazons and other sedentary species might require lower fat levels, perhaps 3 percent. On the other hand, adult macaws often do better on a higher fat intake, usually between 8 to 12 percent. The same is true for babies. Amazon chicks should be fed a lower-fat, hand-feeding formula with 8 to 9 percent fat, whereas macaw chicks need 12 to 15 percent fat to grow properly without stunting. Please note that these levels are not absolutes. Many in the world of avian nutrition still disagree about what constitutes a proper diet for parrots. However, the ranges I've given encompass most of the formulated diets on the market and express the majority opinion.
Water
Although it is not often thought of as a nutrient, water is essential for all bodily functions. Water cools the body, transports nutrients to cells, removes waste products, and serves as a medium for chemical reactions. A deficiency of water is called dehydration and will lead to death if not corrected promptly. The amount of water that a bird needs will vary according to species, type of diet, and many other factors. Budgies and zebra finches seem to metabolize water from food sources and drink comparatively little. Most other species depend on a regular source of fresh water, however, and will die if deprived of it for more than a day or two. Keep in mind that birds fed a dry-seed or pelleted diet will require more water than those fed a diet high in juicy fruits and vegetables. No matter what the diet or what species you are dealing with, be certain that a supply of clean, fresh water is available at all times.
Vitamins
Vitamins are organic substances that regulate cellular functions. Although most vitamins are derived from food, certain ones can be manufactured in the body. Vitamins are divided into two groups, fat soluble and water soluble. Fat-soluble vitamins, which include A, D, E, and K, are stored in the body, primarily in the liver and body fats. Water-soluble vitamins, which include all B-complex vitamins and C, remain in body tissues for a relatively short time, so they must be replenished on a constant basis. Because fat-soluble vitamins are stored, building up toxic amounts is possible if these are oversupplemented. The greatest danger lies with A and D3 in birds, whereas E and K are less likely to cause problems. Water-soluble vitamins are rarely toxic, except in extreme cases of overdose. Never-theless, do not add supplemental vitamins if your birds are on a good- quality formulated diet, which should supply all the nutrients they need. If they are not yet eating a proper diet, then add a vitamin supplement. However, follow the label directions, and do not overdose.
Minerals
Minerals are inorganic substances contained in the earth's crust. Small amounts of these substances are taken up by plants and animals and become part of the food chain. Minerals play a critical role in the body and are essential for life. A few, like calcium and phosphorus, are required in significant amounts and are sometimes referred to as macrominerals. Others are needed in only very minute amounts and are known as micro-minerals or trace minerals. Roughly 12 minerals have been identified as essential for a healthy avian diet, and recommended dietary minimums have been set. Several other minerals, however, are less clearly understood but appear to be important nonetheless.
Putting It All Together
You might feel overwhelmed at the prospect of planning a suitable diet. Not only must all the nutrients be available, but they must also be available in correct ratios so that they do not create imbalances in the others. Because the birds cannot fly around and choose from an unlimited supply of food, they depend on what you put into the dish. So what do you put into the dish?
Seed Diets
By now you have probably come to realize that a seed-only diet is insufficient and downright neglectful. Adding a few fruits and vegetables is an improvement but will still not cover all the nutritional bases, especially for breeding birds and their fast-growing offspring. For example, seeds, fruits, and many vegetables are notoriously low in calcium, so a bird on such a diet is almost guaranteed a calcium deficiency (hypocalcemia) unless supplemental calcium is added. To make matters worse, fatty acids, phytates, and oxalates present in seeds, grains, and some vegetables bind with calcium and further inhibit its absorption. Calcium also works synergistically with phosphorus. The two must be available in proper ratios for optimal function. ln parrots, that ratio is approximately 2:1 (two parts calcium per one paft phosphorus) for maintenance and perhaps slightly higher during active egg laying. Many of the commonly fed items in a bird's diet are high in phosphorus and low or absent in calcium, including sun- flower seeds, safflower seeds, peanuts, corn, apples, and grapes. Sunflower seeds, for example, have approximately seven parts phosphorus to one part calcium, and safflower seeds and peanuts are not much better. I frequently run into old-time breeders who insist that they've used a seed-based diet for years and years and their birds are doing just fine, thank you. Of course, they had that hen that died from egg binding, and the babies with splayed legs, and the 1S-year-old Amazon with arthritis and liver troubles, and the cockatoo that died from a heart attack, and so on. These people don't seem to understand that these are largely nutritional diseases. Most medium-to-large parrots should live well into their forties or fifties or beyond without any significant degenerative diseases. A seed-based diet usually will not kill a parrot quickly, but you can be certain that this diet will kill it slowly and insidiously. Besides the above-mentioned problem with calcium and phosphorus, seed diets are also deficient in vitamins A, D3, E, K, several of the B-complex vitamins, certain amino acids, and several trace elements. They are extremely high in fat and can negatively affect the absorption of some nutrients. By adding a carefully chosen mix of fruits, vegetables, grains, dairy products, and vitamin and mineral supplements, you might be able to offer your birds a fair diet, provided, of course, that they eat everything in the mix completely. In reality, birds will choose their favourite items, and the diet becomes imbalanced and inadequate.
Formulated (Pelleted) Diets
A simple answer exists-to offer your birds a formulated diet. These diets were developed after years of research about avian nutrition. Formulated parrot diets come in two forms, pelleted and extruded, although most people in the avian community use the term pellets to refer to both types. ln general, true pellets consist of a mixture of coarsely ground grains and other food products, supplemented with vitamins and minerals, and pressed into hard, cylindrical pieces. These diets tend to be tan or light brown in color and have a natural grain aroma. Extruded diets begin with much the same ingredients, which are then finely ground, cooked to enhance digestibility, and forced through a die and shaped in a process called extrusion. Extruded brands often contain flavorings and colorings. They are available in a wide variety of shapes, colors, and sizes. For the sake of simplicity, the term pellets will be used to refer to both types of formulated foods even though extruded diets are more common these days. Both of these diets are based on the same concept as dry dog and cat foods, which is to provide complete and balanced nutrition in each bite.
Detractors offer three main arguments against feeding pellets. First, they claim that no such thing as a complete diet exists since no one yet fully understands parrot nutrition. Although this is true, the same argument can be applied toward any diet. Your birds will certainly have a much better chance at total nutrition with a formulated diet than they will with the "throw-it-in-the-bowl- and-see-what-they-like" school of nutrition. Over the years, pellet manufacturers have tweaked and fiddled with the diets constantly as research suggests methods for improvement.
The second argument waged against pellets is that they are unnatural. Actually, most of the ingredients found in pellets are natural food items for parrots, albeit in a processed form. Today's common seed mixes, on the other hand, tend to use a number of seeds and grains that are not normally found in the range countries of most parrots. More importantly, people need to get over the romanticized belief that they should replicate the natural diet of birds in the wild. Most parrots in the wild are opportunistic feeders and will consume just about anything to meet their caloric needs, including insects, lizards, and carrion. Wild parrots likely do not reach their maximum possible life span due, in part, to the difficulty of obtaining sufficient and varied nutrients. Captive diets can and should be an improvement over free-ranging diets, not a duplication of them.
The final argument against pellets is that they're boring and fail to offer taste and tactile stimulation to the bird. This smacks of anthropomorphism. (Because pellets look boring to people, people assume they are boring to birds.) This argument has several problems. First of all, parrots are creatures of habit and will often choose to eat one food to the near exclusion of others. Therefore, lack of choice does not necessarily imply boredom. Secondly, parrots do not have the same sense of taste that humans possess, so gauging taste preferences is very difficult. Although birds might show strong preferences for one food over another, these preferences could be due to familiarity, taste, color, shape, size, or many other factors.
For example, I have a wild-caught Moluccan cockatoo that came to me on an exclusive diet of black-striped sunflower seeds. Because that was all he would eat, that became the only food item that his previous owners offered him. He was in poor health and terrible feathering, yet he stubbornly refused any other foods. After months of experimenting with different formulated diets, I finally found one he would accept. Now, 15 years later, Mikey is healthy and beautiful. He's still food obsessed, but now he's obsessed with pellets and will not touch seeds. He has expanded his palate to include many different brands of pellets but shows a definite preference for formulated diets over any fresh foods.
Maintenance Diets
Although most avian researchers, veterinarians, and nutritionists seem to concur that a formulated diet is essential for long life and optimal health, it need not be the only food your birds eat. Between 20 to 30 percent of the diet can be made up of fresh fruits, vegetables, seeds, nuts, grains, and people food. Keep in mind, however, that this means that roughly 70 to 80 percent of the bird's intake must be the formulated diet. Some well-meaning people claim that they are feeding a pelleted diet. However, what they actually do is fill a crock in the parrot's cage with pellets, then spend the rest of the day stuffing the bird with assorted treats while the pellets sit uneaten. I usually feed an assortment of pellets free choice (available at all times) and offer small amounts of fruits, vegetables, or other treats as a snack late in the morning. You can adapt this basic diet to meet the special needs of any species you keep. Because macaws require relatively high levels of fat, I offer my macaws a small dish of mixed in-shell nuts every day along with their other treats. A few species (Eclectus, hanging parrots, and fig parrots, for example) seem to do best on a diet that's roughly 60 percent pellets and 40 percent high-vitamin fruits and vegetables. Lories and lorikeets need an even higher percentage of fruits. How- ever, they still do best with a formulated lory powder as a base diet to provide the proteins, fats, and vitamins they require. For most parrot species, researchers recommend protein levels between 12 to 16 percent and fat levels between 4 to 7 percent for a maintenance diet.
Breeding Diets
You should consider several factors when changing a bird's diet during breeding season. A good
breeding diet should
- Act as a psychological stimulus to induce pairs to nest
- Increase the hen's level of nutrition to provide the extra nutrients required for egg production and embryonic
survival
- Provide a healthy growth diet for parent-fed chicks
Although pairs might produce successfully on standard maintenance tare, it will often be at the female's expense as she depletes her body stores to create eggs. On the other hand, feeding a breeding diet year-round is just as dangerous, because the higher levels of fats and proteins will likely cause obesity and a host of other medical problems in nonproducing birds. Ironically, one of the major problems associated with the overuse of breeding diets is infertility in males, due primarily to obesity.
Many aviculturists have had success in inducing breeding activity by sharply increasing the amount of soft food (fruits and vegetables) offered at the beginning of the season. Parrot species that are traditionally spring breeders often respond to seasonal cues, such as increased day length, higher humidity and barometric pressure, and an increase in the supply of fresh food. This tactic is somewhat less effective with species like African greys, which tend to breed during the dry season in the wild and are often winter breeders in captivity. The other problem with this method arises when the fruit and vegetable portion of the diet exceeds 30 percent or so of the food intake. ln this case, it becomes counterproductive since the hen is not likely consuming enough fats and proteins to sustain her during egg production. The problem can be tackled in a few ways. To begin with, you should switch to a breeding pellet as the season approaches. These are usually between 18 lo 22 percent protein and 7 lo 10 percent fat. They will contain higher levels of calcium and other nutrients to support reproduction and growth. lf you want to increase the soft-food portion of the diet beyond 30 percent, you can incorporate the pellets into the soft food. During breeding season, I make up a birdie casserole that includes cooked whole-wheat pasta, brown rice, beans, chopped sweet potatoes, chopped kale or spinach, wheat germ, crumbled breeding pellets, and anything else I feel like tossing in. The birds love it, and it allows me to increase the amount of soft food without reducing their overall pellet intake. They get a dish of this mixture each morning in addition to the dry breeding pellets. When feeding any soft foods, however, always remove the uneaten portion after three or four hours since these are an incredible growth medium for bacteria and fungi. The breeding diet described above will provide a solid foundation to carry the parents through breeding, egg laying, and chick rearing. Be sure you do not offer too many individual fruits and vegetables to the parents while they're feeding chicks, or they might stuff the chicks with relatively low-nutrient foods instead of the highly nutritional pellets. I once gave my macaws an ear of corn a few days after a baby hatched. When I peeked into the nest box later, I saw that the chick's crop was completely packed full with nothing but kernels of corn. Although a few feedings like this won't hurt a healthy baby, selective food choices of this sort will not provide the range of nutrients required for growth. lf you make sure that the parents are eating mostly pellets and other highly nutritious foods, you'll be reasonably certain that the chicks are receiving proper nutrition. As always, provide plenty of clean, fresh water. You'll find that the parents require a greatly increased water and food intake while feeding babies, so keep those dishes full!
Post Breeding
Once breeding season is over, the time has come to make the transition back to a maintenance diet. Continue to feed breeder pellets for a week or two after removing the chicks to allow the parents to build up their nutritional reserves. Then make the switch back to maintenance formulas. Start to dry out the diet slightly by reducing the amount of soft food. For pairs without a clearly defined breeding season, you can simply cycle the diet from maintenance to breeding and back again once or twice a year, adjusting as necessary when they show signs of reproductive activity.
Food Storage and Safety
No matter what you are feeding, you must be sure that the food is fresh, is unspoiled, and contains viable nutrients. Most pelleted diets have an expiration date, or a date of manufacture, stamped right onto the bag. A few companies code these dates, so ask your supplier or call the manufacturer if you are uncertain. In general, formulated diets that contain preservatives (natural or artificial) are considered fresh for about a year after manufacture, assuming they're stored under cool, dry conditions. Extreme heat and humidity will shorten the shelf life, but refrigeration or freezing will extend it.
Preservative-free brands have a shorter shelf life and should probably be refrigerated after opening. Seed mixes are not normally dated, so gauging the freshness is difficult. Most seed crops are harvested just once or maybe twice a year and kept in storage. lf you purchase seed mixes, buy only from a reputable manufacturer and buy only from suppliers who have a rapid turnover of product. Otherwise, You might be getting food that has been sitting in storage for a year or more. Some books recommend sprouting a few seeds to test for freshness, but many of the mixes are treatedand processed in ways that will hamper germination, even if the seeds are relatively fresh.
Poison Alert
Always store seeds and grains in cool, dry, airtight containers. Exposure to heat and air will cause the oils to turn rancid and encourage the growth of molds and fungi. Most of these are invisible, but
they form dangerous compounds known as mycotoxins. You cannot normally see, smell, or taste mycotoxins, but they are deadly Poisons. Depending on the type and the amount present, effects range from low-level chronic damage to the liver, kidneys, and immune system to sudden toxicity and death over just a few days. Aflatoxin, a mycotoxin common to peanuts and corn, is a Potent cancer-causing agent that attacks the kidneys and liver. The USDA inspects peanuts destined for human consumption to ensure aflatoxin levels fall below federal limits, but improper storage at a later date might cause fungal growth. I feed only human-grade peanuts to my birds, and I limit them to just a few each week. The important points to remember here are that you should buy only the freshest food Possible, store it properly, and immediately discard any food that looks moldy or discolored or that smells rancid or musty. Keep in mind that replacing a bag of questionable food is much cheaper than replacing beloved and valuable Parrot that dies from mycotoxin exposure.
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